Part 1 of this FAQ provided context and background on the PC board, and discussed its first widespread appearance as a phenolic-based board. Part 2 looks at some board issues and the widely used FR-4 PC board substrate. Q: I see the term “solder mask” — what is that? A: Solder mask (also called a […]
The first undersea transatlantic cable: An audacious project that (eventually) succeeded, Part 2
Part 1 of this feature looked at the people, project, and the vessels of the first trans-Atlantic cable project. Part 2 looks at the cable, test and repair, and implications of the final success. The cable Managing the cable and rolling it out smoothly with the proper tension so it would not snap with the […]
Printed Circuit Boards, Part 1: Context and phenolic boards
Despite appearances, there’s nothing simple about the materials or fabrication of the ubiquitous PC board, and the requirements of multi-GHz systems are increasing the performance demands placed on these boards. We take the standard, usually green, printed circuit board (PC board or PCB) for granted, but it has an interesting history, alternatives, and future. This […]
The first undersea transatlantic cable: An audacious project that (eventually) succeeded, Part 1
The conception, execution, and eventual success of the project to link North America and Europe with an undersea telegraph cable in the mid-1880s was costly, ambitious, exasperating, and arduous, comparable to the Apollo moon-landing project and the atom bomb. Our world is tightly laced by undersea fiber-optic cables carrying data at rates in the high […]
What are cryogenic temperature measurements? Part 2
Part 1 of this article looked at sensing and sensors for ultracold and cryogenic temperatures; Part 2 advances the story to more esoteric situations. Q: What’s the fundamental difference between measuring extremely high temperatures versus cryogenic ones? A: When things get really hot, extending into thousands of degrees, the sensor options are limited. Usually, it […]
What are cryogenic temperature measurements? Part 1
Cryogenic temperatures may seem only of limited interest, but they are actually critical in many instrumentation and other systems. Measuring these ultralow temperatures is both easy and difficult, depending on temperature, material, and mass. Temperature is the most commonly measured physical variable, whether it’s just to assess the local weather to manage the performance of […]
What are RF waveguides? Part 2: implementation and components
Part 1 of this FAQ looked at the context and the need for waveguides; Part 2 looks at the implementation and available components. Q: What standard waveguide are available? A: There are thousands of models, configurations, and options. Most waveguides have flanges so they can be connected to create longer guides, or to provide turns […]
What are RF waveguides? Part 1: context and principles
Waveguides confine and covey electromagnetic energy in the GHz+ range, just as coaxial cables do; they offer lower loss and other virtues, but at a cost in parts and ease of use. Waveguides (sometimes spelled out as wave guides) do not have the visibility or convenience of coaxial cables but they are an essential passive […]
Engineering the atomic submarine, Part 2: One man’s audacity, determination, dedication revolutionized naval reality
Part 1 looked at the origin and results of the Nautilus program; Part 2 looks at the broader issues and lessons. Leadership across multiple disciplines Until the atomic sub, all subs were basically watertight surface ships designed to submerge and stay underwater for brief periods. No navy had never produced a sub hull designed and […]
Engineering the atomic submarine, Part 1: One man’s audacity, determination, dedication revolutionized naval reality
The development of the first nuclear-powered submarine, driven by Admiral Hyman Rickover, in many ways foreshadowed the Apollo program, but there were distinct differences as well. The traditional diesel-electric submarine was really not a “submarine” vessel” — it was a watertight, submersible pressure vessel and boat, capable of staying underwater for a few hours at […]
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