The Tektronix AFG31000 Series Function Generator can be used in conjunction with an oscilloscope to display the generated signals in one or two analog channels on a large LCD. Alternately, the AFG has smaller waveform displays with reduced resolution, nonetheless adequate for demonstrating the functionality of this powerful instrument. When initially powered up, the AFG […]
The difference between noise and jitter
Noise and jitter in electronics are closely related phenomena. Both are unwanted electrical energy that we mitigate where possible and otherwise work around. Weak signals are obscured by noise. No amount of filtering can reduce noise that is caused by fluctuations intrinsic to the signal being measured, but this noise can be partially eliminated by […]
Testing and diagnosing ac motor controllers
The National Electrical Code in Article 430 specifies that all electrical motors are to have suitable controllers. When the motor runs at a constant speed, the controller can be relatively simple. It is often not much more than an on/off switch, though there are more sophisticated versions that include provisions for handling different types of […]
Poor earth ground on satellite dishes can put you in orbit
In a satellite dish, as sometimes used to receive internet signals transmitted via satellite, the signal transmitted by a satellite transponder is reflected by and propagated through a circular or rectangular tube, which is part of the feedhorn. This tube, like all waveguides, has dimensions based on the wavelength of the signal. Its purpose is […]
Hot topic: How to measure plasma in a fusion reactor
The International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) tokamak is an experimental machine designed to harness the energy of fusion. ITER will be the world’s largest tokamak, with a plasma radius of 6.2 m and a plasma volume of 840 m³. The heart of a tokamak is its doughnut-shaped vacuum chamber. Here, under the influence of extreme […]
Visualizing phase relationships in capacitors
The ideal capacitor consists of two conductive plates separated by a thin dielectric layer that separates and insulates the two plates from each other so they have no direct or resistive electrical connection. When voltage is applied across the plates, they store the electrical charge. The capacitor may take many forms. If the plates are […]
Op-amps and their most important parameters
The operational amplifier (op-amp) has been one of the most successful integrated circuits. A type of differential amplifier with high gain, the differential inputs and single output enable this small, inexpensive IC to use negative feedback in a wide variety of applications, in which its gain (hundreds of thousands of times higher than the difference […]
Fluke test tools and protecting against arc flash
Fluke Corp. has manufactured electrical test and measurement instruments for decades, and these instruments have been well-known for accuracy, durability and great user-friendly interfaces. Maintaining those qualities, Fluke is now emphasizing electrical safety. This emphasis is apparent in Fluke’s new line of electricians’ hand tools, which are designed and built with the idea that after […]
Basics of cavity resonators
Experimenters beware! If you think it might be instructive to dismantle a microwave oven and power up the magnetron to make a space gun, don’t do it. A microwave gun (called a magnetron) in a state other than as manufactured has numerous potential hazards. (Nevertheless, you can find a lot of YouTube videos describing exactly […]
The difference between scanning electron microscopes and tunneling scanning electron microscopes
Compared to an optical microscope, the electron microscope achieves far greater resolution and magnification by taking advantage of the wave aspect of electrons. An electron’s wavelength is typically 1/100,000 that of visible light. Resolutions of 50 pm and 10 million-X magnification have been achieved, far better than the 200-mm resolution and 2,000X magnification of a […]
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