Wi-Fi security has significantly improved over the years from initially being more aspirational than real until today, where Wi-Fi 6 security is considered to be on a par with the security of 5G telephony. This FAQ will answer several questions related to Wi-Fi security and encryption: What’s the difference between WEP, WPA, WPA2, and WPA3? […]
What to consider when selecting a Wi-Fi antenna
Antennas are a critical part of the link budget in all wireless communications applications, including Wi-Fi. In addition to the numerous antenna performance and link budget issues in wireless communications, there are general architectural challenges. The architectural options are the focus of this FAQ, including; long-distance versus local Wi-Fi and the use of directional vs. […]
Wi-Fi by the numbers
This FAQ briefly reviews the generations of Wi-Fi and backward compatibilities, looks at the different frequency bands used by the latest Wi-Fi specifications, and reviews the bandwidths offered by various Wi-Fi implementations. The first five generations of Wi-Fi focused on evolutionary and incremental advancements and backward compatibility. Wi-Fi 6 changed that trajectory and is a […]
Quantifying and measuring non-electrical phenomena: Vibration
Vibration is an important design consideration in many electronic applications such as industrial, automotive, aerospace and marine systems, and consumer white goods and disc drives. Even electronic devices designed for use in relatively vibration-free environments can be subjected to potentially damaging vibration during shipment. The concepts related to vibration also find utility in computer graphics, […]
Quantifying and measuring non-electrical phenomena: Humidity
Humidity is the concentration of water vapor in the air. Too much or too little humidity can be detrimental to the functioning of electronic devices. This FAQ begins by looking at some basic concepts related to humidity and the impact that humidity can have on electronics. It then looks at the importance of using humidity […]
Quantifying and measuring non-electrical phenomena: Heat
Heat involves the transfer of energy to or from a thermodynamic system. ‘Heat flow’, although commonly used, is a redundant term since heat is defined as the flow (or transfer) of thermal energy. Thermal energy is the kinetic energy of molecules and atoms. A Joule (J) is the International System (SI) unit of heat, work, […]
Quantifying and measuring non-electrical phenomena – Light
Light has varying definitions; it’s usually limited to the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, but sometimes it’s defined to include the near-infrared (IR) and ultraviolet (UV) portions. For example, LidAR (light detection and ranging) uses various portions of UV, visible, or near IR spectrum to image objects. And ‘light’ has a different definition if […]
Quantifying embedded MCU energy consumption
There are several methods and benchmarks for quantifying the energy consumption of embedded microcontroller units (MCUs) and related energy consumption benchmarks for common peripheral functions such as Bluetooth low energy and Wi-Fi. Over time, MCU designs have changed to support the demand for higher energy efficiency. In addition, there is another world of energy consumption […]
Specifying MCUs for satellites and spacecraft
There is not a single group of standards but a continuum of qualification criteria for the components and systems used in satellites and spacecraft (Figure 1). With the growth of low earth orbit (LEO) satellites where the environment is less demanding and where some satellites are expected to be replaced regularly with upgraded designs, the […]
How does embedded software work?
Embedded software is specialized programming on a chip, such as a microcontroller (MCU), or in firmware in an embedded MCU, to control its functions. Unlike general computer applications, designed to be installed on various computer systems or modified to provide varying levels of functionality, embedded software is generally purpose-built for a single hardware environment and […]